Translation guide
The English word "by" has many grammatical functions. This guide helps learners express the most common meanings naturally in Japanese, organized by use: means/method, agent in passives, location (near), deadline, amount of difference, and more.
Expressing how an action is performed or the means used to achieve a result.
The て-form of a verb often expresses the means by which an action is done, similar to 'by doing X'. It connects a method to a result.
歩いて学校に行きます。
I go to school by walking.
I looked up the word by using a dictionary.
Using the nominalizer こと + で to mean 'by doing X'. More explicit than the て-form, often used in written or formal contexts.
毎日練習することで上手になる。
You improve by practicing every day.
Formal/written pattern meaning 'by means of' or 'through'. Often used for methods, processes, or causes.
インターネットによって情報を得る。
We obtain information by means of the internet.
The particle で marks the means or tool used to perform an action. Equivalent to 'by' with nouns (by car, by hand).
バスで駅まで行きます。
I go to the station by bus.
手で食べる。
Eat by hand.
Indicating who or what performs the action in a passive construction.
The particle に marks the agent (doer) in a passive sentence. Used for both animate and inanimate agents.
この本は有名な作家によって書かれた。
This book was written by a famous author.
私は先生に褒められた。
I was praised by the teacher.
Formal/written alternative to に for passive agents, especially with inanimate agents or in academic contexts.
その建物は有名な建築家によって設計された。
The building was designed by a famous architect.
Used when the agent is a source or origin, such as receiving something from someone. Not a general passive agent marker.
友達からプレゼントをもらった。
I received a present from a friend. (lit. 'by a friend')
Expressing physical proximity to something.
Means 'near' or 'by'. Casual and commonly used for people and objects.
駅のそばに住んでいます。
I live by the station.
Means 'near' or 'in the vicinity'. Slightly more formal than そば.
Means 'beside' or 'next to'. Emphasizes the side-by-side position.
彼は私の横に座った。
He sat by me.
Means 'side' or 'by the side of'. Often used for roadsides or less central positions.
Indicating that something must be completed before or at a specific time.
The particle までに means 'by (a time)' and indicates a deadline. The action must be completed by that time.
明日までにレポートを提出してください。
Please submit the report by tomorrow.
5時までに帰ります。
I'll come back by 5 o'clock.
まで without に indicates a continuous state until a time, not a deadline. Can sometimes be used for 'by' in casual speech, but までに is more precise.
Using まで instead of までに can change the meaning from a deadline to a continuous duration. Use までに for deadlines.
明日まで待ってください。
Please wait until tomorrow. (not 'by tomorrow')
Expressing the degree or margin of change or difference.
Means 'by (an amount)' or 'only by'. Indicates the extent of change or difference.
値段が100円だけ上がった。
The price went up by 100 yen.
Means 'by about' or 'approximately'. Used for approximate differences.
気温が5度ほど下がった。
The temperature dropped by about 5 degrees.
Literally 'by a difference of N'. Used in competitive or comparative contexts.
1点の差で負けた。
We lost by one point.
Expressing a standard, rule, or source of information.
Means 'according to' when citing a source of information. Often used with hearsay.
天気予報によると、明日は雨だ。
According to the weather forecast, it will rain tomorrow.
Used to indicate a standard or rule, like 'by law' or 'by the rules'.
法律では、それは禁止されている。
By law, that is prohibited.
Specifying the channel or medium used.
Expressing the unit of measurement or rate.
Means 'by the (unit)'. Used for rates or per-unit measurements.
この仕事は時間単位で支払われる。
This job is paid by the hour.
Means 'every' or 'by the'. Used for intervals or groupings.
1メートルごとに印をつける。
Mark it by the meter.
まで indicates a continuous state until a time (e.g., 'until 5 PM'), while までに indicates a deadline (e.g., 'by 5 PM'). Using the wrong one can cause confusion.
5時までに終わらせる。
I will finish it by 5 o'clock.
5時まで待つ。
I will wait until 5 o'clock.
English 'by' has many functions that don't map to a single Japanese word. Always identify the meaning first (means, agent, location, etc.) and choose the appropriate pattern.
There is a café by the park.
Flowers are blooming by the road.