Translation guide
The English word "by" has many grammatical functions. This guide helps learners express the most common meanings naturally in Japanese, organized by use: means/method, agent in passives, location (near), deadline, amount of difference, and more.
Expressing how an action is performed or the means used to achieve a result.
The て-form of a verb often expresses the means by which an action is done, similar to 'by doing X'. It connects a method to a result.
I go to school by walking.
I looked up the word by using a dictionary.
Using the nominalizer こと + で to mean 'by doing X'. More explicit than the て-form, often used in written or formal contexts.
You improve by practicing every day.
Formal/written pattern meaning 'by means of' or 'through'. Often used for methods, processes, or causes.
We obtain information by means of the internet.
The particle で marks the means or tool used to perform an action. Equivalent to 'by' with nouns (by car, by hand).
I go to the station by bus.
Eat by hand.
Indicating who or what performs the action in a passive construction.
The particle に marks the agent (doer) in a passive sentence. Used for both animate and inanimate agents.
This book was written by a famous author.
I was praised by the teacher.
Formal/written alternative to に for passive agents, especially with inanimate agents or in academic contexts.
Used when the agent is a source or origin, such as receiving something from someone. Not a general passive agent marker.
I received a present from a friend. (lit. 'by a friend')
Expressing physical proximity to something.
Means 'near' or 'by'. Casual and commonly used for people and objects.
I live by the station.
Means 'near' or 'in the vicinity'. Slightly more formal than そば.
Means 'beside' or 'next to'. Emphasizes the side-by-side position.
Means 'side' or 'by the side of'. Often used for roadsides or less central positions.
Indicating that something must be completed before or at a specific time.
The particle までに means 'by (a time)' and indicates a deadline. The action must be completed by that time.
Please submit the report by tomorrow.
I'll come back by 5 o'clock.
まで without に indicates a continuous state until a time, not a deadline. Can sometimes be used for 'by' in casual speech, but までに is more precise.
Using まで instead of までに can change the meaning from a deadline to a continuous duration. Use までに for deadlines.
Please wait until tomorrow. (not 'by tomorrow')
Expressing the degree or margin of change or difference.
Means 'by (an amount)' or 'only by'. Indicates the extent of change or difference.
The price went up by 100 yen.
Means 'by about' or 'approximately'. Used for approximate differences.
The temperature dropped by about 5 degrees.
Literally 'by a difference of N'. Used in competitive or comparative contexts.
We lost by one point.
Expressing a standard, rule, or source of information.
Means 'according to' when citing a source of information. Often used with hearsay.
According to the weather forecast, it will rain tomorrow.
Used to indicate a standard or rule, like 'by law' or 'by the rules'.
By law, that is prohibited.
Specifying the channel or medium used.
The particle で marks the means of transport or communication. Same as the means/method usage.
I go by train.
I'll send it by email.
Expressing the unit of measurement or rate.
Means 'by the (unit)'. Used for rates or per-unit measurements.
This job is paid by the hour.
Means 'every' or 'by the'. Used for intervals or groupings.
Mark it by the meter.
まで indicates a continuous state until a time (e.g., 'until 5 PM'), while までに indicates a deadline (e.g., 'by 5 PM'). Using the wrong one can cause confusion.
I will finish it by 5 o'clock.
I will wait until 5 o'clock.
English 'by' has many functions that don't map to a single Japanese word. Always identify the meaning first (means, agent, location, etc.) and choose the appropriate pattern.
The building was designed by a famous architect.
公園の近くにカフェがある。
There is a café by the park.
He sat by me.
Flowers are blooming by the road.