て・
Use a verb ending in て or なくて when an event—or the absence of an event—directly causes a reaction, state, realization, or inability.
How the connection works
The first clause gives the cause, and the second gives its direct result. The result is normally something that happened or was felt, not a deliberate response chosen by the speaker.
Typical resulting reactions and states
Emotions, difficulty, inability, and changes of state make the causal connection especially clear.
その知らせを聞いて、安心しました。
I was relieved when I heard the news.
AnalyzeHearing the news directly caused the feeling of relief.
鍵を忘れて、家に入れませんでした。
I forgot my key, so I couldn't get into the house.
Analyze友達に会えなくて、寂しかったです。
I felt lonely because I couldn't see my friend.
Analyze説明がよく聞こえなくて、内容が分かりませんでした。
I couldn't hear the explanation clearly, so I didn't understand it.
AnalyzeCause, sequence, and explicit reasons
A verb's て form can also put actions in chronological order, so the ending alone does not mean “because.” A causal reading becomes clear when the second clause describes a reaction, state, realization, or inability. For an explicit general reason—especially one leading to a request, invitation, or intention—ので or から is normally more suitable.
More examples
台風が近づいて、飛行機が欠航になりました。
The approaching typhoon caused the flight to be canceled.
Analyze財布をなくして、一日中困っていました。
I lost my wallet and was in trouble all day.
Analyze予定が変わって、少し戸惑いました。
The change in plans left me a little confused.
Analyze予約が取れなくて、残念でした。
I was disappointed because I couldn't get a reservation.
Analyze道が分からなくて、不安になりました。
I became anxious because I didn't know the way.
Analyze久しぶりに家族の声を聞いて、うれしくなりました。
Hearing my family's voices again after a long time made me happy.
Analyze